Computerized Payroll System free essay sample

This has been very rewarding and fruitful work on the part of the researchers despite the crucial experiences along its way to completion. What better rewards could one still ask with the professional enrichment gain in this endeavour and the friendship, generosity and concern of countless people? They know the researchers could not thank them enough for their caring contributions to the completion of this study. The researchers would like to acknowledge those who had given their unconditional efforts and assistance to the development and for the compilation of this study. The researchers wish to express their warm thanks to Dr. Susan Aguilan-Lopez, our instructor in Project Study for her constructive criticism and excellent advice throughout the completion of this study. The researchers wish to convey their sincerest gratitude to Mr. Philip L. Balagtey, their adviser, for the knowledge, guidance and friendly advices he imparted. The researchers are deeply grateful to our instructors and panels during our defences, Ms. Joanne Pating (Chairman of the panel), Mr. CharloS. Kiat-ong and Mr. Hailley T. Chakas for their valuable advices, suggestions, comments, encouragement and guidance for the development of this study. They also wish to convey their warm thanks to the Administrative officer of DAR, Ms. Cyrila Alcon for allowing them to choose their respective office as an area of their study. They also wish to thank all the staffs’ of DAR for providing us the information we needed for the completion of our study. They also wish to extend their warm thanks to Ms. Ivy Guting and Mr. HazimGomer for their advices and the valuable knowledge they imparted for the progress of this project. Special gratitude is due to Ms. Elvira Apongao for her friendly advice and countless help for the completion of this study. The researchers wish to express their sincere appreciation and heartfelt gratitude to their friends for the help, encouragement, cooperation and willingness, although words may not enough, countless thanks for their help. Indebtedness gratitude is also due to our parents, and other family members for their understanding and financial support throughout this study. Above all, utmost to the ALMIGHTY GOD who is the source of countless and bountiful blessing of knowledge, strength, good health, divine grace and love which help the researchers accomplished this study. C. Y. C. H. A. D. N. S. G. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to our parents for their love, endless support and encouragement. ABSTRACT Title: Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) Computerized Payroll System Researchers: Clifford Y. Cacap, Herwin A. Daysa Nelson S. Genora Type of Document: Project Study Type of Publication: Unpublished Institution: Mountain Province State Polytechnic CollegeBontoc, Mountain Province Keywords: Computerized Payroll System, CPS, Department ofAgrarian Reform (DAR) Rationale As the impact of computerized systems are more than realized, computerizing systems used in offices has already become a need to enable the overall office operation perform their tasks faster, accurate and more reliable compared to manual processes. It automates many functions which save both time and effort. It enables the personnel and staffs manage data and information electronically as needed keeping records up-to-date. The Department of Agrarian Reform is the lead implementing agency of Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP). It undertakes land tenure improvement, development of program beneficiaries, and agrarian justice delivery. This means there are a number of personnel being employed to do these tasks. However, basing from the information gathered by the proponents, the DAR is having a problem in preparing and managing their payroll because they are still using the manual process (MS Excel) see statement of the problem. This motivated the proponents to design a computerized payroll system to lessen or even eliminate the problems being encountered on the present system used by the Department of Agrarian Reform. Summary After a thorough observation and careful analysis basing from the information gathered, the following findings and problems has been observed. The Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR) is still using Microsoft Excel in preparing their payroll. Problems will surely be minimized using the proposed computerized payroll system. The proposed system will certainly give accessible, accurate, efficient, and reliable information to the user. In addition, it also aims to improve the time management in order to obtain a faster completion of the overall operation of the Department of Agrarian Reform (DAR). Conclusions In the light of the findings of this study, the following conclusions were drawn: 1. The encountered problems on the Department of Agrarian Reform office were; computations of the salaries are not accurate and are prone to errors and complexities, files are not organized, technical errors due to manual processes. These errors require a lot of time and effort which makes the process slow and gives a tiring day to the personnel in charge. 2. The proposed system will eliminate the problems encountered in the existing payroll system. It will speed up the process involved in payroll preparation; Filing, retrieving, tracking and updating of employee records. Furthermore, it will produce accurate data. In addition, the personnel in charge can eventually generate reports and manage records on time. 3. Security of Data is assured if the proposed system will be implemented. Recommendations The researchers recommend that the Department of Agrarian Reform shall implement the proposed Computerized Payroll System to speed up the process of preparing payroll. Some of the concerns of this automation of the process are directly channelled by the person involved in the system. Personnel involved shall be trained for a better and fast implementation. The researchers recommend that employees that are involved in payroll preparation should be oriented for them to fully understand matters concerning the proposed system.? TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Title Page Approval Sheet i Acknowledgementii Dedicationv Abstract vi Table of Contentsx Chapter I: INTRODUCTION Background of the Study1 Statement of Objectives4 Scope and Delimitation5 Importance of the study6 Definition of Terms7 Chapter II: DESIGN ANDMETHODOLOGY Software DevelopmentMethodology 10 Data Gathering Techniques14 Sources of Data15 Chapter III: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS The Existing System16 The Proposed System20 Features of the Proposed System22 Security Measures23 Chapter IV: SUMMARY, CONCLUSSION, and RECOMMENDATION Summary24 Conclusion24 Recommendation25 REFERENCES 27 APPENDICES Cost Benefit Analysis31 Interview Guide Questions32 Gantt Chart33 Screen Shots35 Table of Specification42 Entity-Relationship Diagram43 Curriculum Vitae44

A comparison of two female heroes Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone in Sophocles Antigone Essay Example

A comparison of two female heroes: Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone in Sophocles Antigone Paper The character of Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone of Sophocles Antigone, two women that chose to rebel against society in order to achieve something that they believe strongly in. The different cultures that embrace these two plays, allow for many parallels between the values of both men and women. These two protagonists are definitely similar in some ways, due to the fact that in both situations these is an obvious repression of women and that these women are both striving for something that is against the law. However, there are several key differences between the characters of Nora and Antigone. These differences, although not guarding them from reaching their ultimate goals, do manage to give us a clear distinction between the two protagonists.. Antigone, based in ancient Greece, repeatedly demonstrates examples of the oppression of women. From the first scene, when Antigone is talking to Ismene about her plan to bury Oedipus, the repression of females is evident. Ismene is clearly terrified of defying Creons laws, which would put ultimate disgrace upon their lives. Ismene emphasizes this point by stating that [They] are women and such are not made to fight with men. (Sophocles, 193) By this statement, Ismene shows us that the society has forced the inferiority of women so strongly, that even they believe that their sex is helpless against the superior, male sex. Antigone however, steps over this barrier and puts her brothers burial in front of not only the law, but also the values of their society. The view of women in the times of Ancient Greece was more extreme than that of the late 19th century, the time when Ibsens, A Dolls House takes place. We will write a custom essay sample on A comparison of two female heroes: Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone in Sophocles Antigone specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A comparison of two female heroes: Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone in Sophocles Antigone specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A comparison of two female heroes: Nora in Ibsens A Dolls House and Antigone in Sophocles Antigone specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In A Dolls House, the oppression of women is a little more passive; the people of this time referred to the subject with a certain degree of subtly. Instead of openly stating that women are inferior, as Creon does in Sophocles play, Torvald uses certain euphemisms to portray these values. For example, when Torvald and Nora are discussing Noras spendings, Torvald says, My little song-bird must never do that again. A song-bird must have a clean beak to chirp with no false notes. (Ibsen, 26) Torvalds view of Nora is like a doll, except one that also cleans the house and takes care of his kids. This notion of a perfect housewife is one that is constantly reoccurring in Ibsens novel. The audience does not feel the oppression of women as much in A Dolls House as they do in Antigone. This is because of the large difference in the time periods of the two plays. Also, Torvald seems to approach Nora in a very passionate way, one that masks the strong feeling of superiority that men felt. Even though the view of women in Antigone might seem more radical, especially when Creon throws out comments such as: No woman while I live shall govern me. (Sophocles, 214) or You womans slave! (Sophocles, 224), the euphemisms that Torvald uses are actually just as repressive, if not more so. His significantly older age does not is not that much of a factor in his relationship with Nora, the fact that she is a woman, who is also willing to play this role, is what creates the seemingly parent-child-like relationship between the two. Torvalds somewhat loving comments represent where women were placed in the society; they were looked at as little housewives. In fact, this notion of a perfect little housewife, or a delicate young woman who takes care of the house, is still somewhat present in todays society. Another difference between the two women is the path which they take in order to make their statement against the laws of the state. Antigone has a strong sense of rebellion from the beginning of the play, whereas Nora expresses some thoughts against the Society, yet she only realizes her repression at the end of the story. Antigone states her rebellious position and questions the state throughout the whole play, not hiding any of her thoughts. Nora on the other hand, is slightly more delicate with the approach. She tries until the last moment to hide the fact that she has forged her husbands signature. She seems to have some kind of doubts about her social status but does not react, as Antigone did, until the end of the play before she leaves the house. When talking to Mrs. Linde, Nora gets upset after she is told that she hasnt accomplished anything important in her life. My dear! Small household cares and that sort of thing! You are a child, Nora. (Ibsen, 11) The fact that Nora is disturbed by the thought of being useless, shows that she has some sort of will to raise her status in the society. When Mrs. Linde tells her that everything she has done so far are just small household cares, Nora wants to be recognized as something more than that. Antigone on the other hand, is not protesting on the behalf of herself. Her reason is the respect for her dead brother, not her own respect for herself. We, as the audience, can see that Antigone is actually sad to leave all of her life behind and die at such an early age: Unwept, unwedded, unloved I go On this last journey of all. Eye of the blessed sun I shall miss you soon. (Sophocles, 230) However, Antigone believes that a respectful burial of her brother is more important than any achievement that she could have reached. In some way Nora also risks her life by forging her Husbands signature, in love for her husband. However, she does not want to tell this to Torvald because she is afraid that it would upset [their] mutual relations altogether; [their] beautiful happy home would no longer be what it is now. (Ibsen, 13) Here, Nora displays the fact that her role is somewhat fake; she agrees to play the role of the innocent housewife, mostly because it is something that Torvald feeds off. When Nora tells Torvald about the forgery he first scolds her for being irresponsible but later calms down and confesses that There is something so indescribably sweet and satisfying, to a man, in the knowledge that he has forgiven his wife forgiven her freely (Ibsen, 64) At this point, Nora changes her position in the conversation; she begins to question the law. The fact that she says this to Torvald shows a great change in her personality, almost a striving for freedom. This striving is something that Antigone experiences quite early in the novel, carrying it all the way through to the end. The stubbornness of Antigone almost makes her seem manly, and the audience sees her as being more of a tragic hero than Nora, who does not dare disagree with Torvald until the end of the play. It is at the end of both plays however, when the two characters switch personalities. Nora becomes a strong, stubborn woman whereas Antigone, while keeping her belief that what she is doing is right, resorts to mourning for what she will miss. Nora walks out of the house, saying Oh Torvald, I dont believe anymore in wonderful things happening. (68) We can see that Nora has realized some things about the society that she is living in. Her constant hope that something good will happen turns out to be nothing more than a dream. Antigone on the other hand, is in despair before being taken away: So taken, so am I led away: A virgin still, no nuptial song, no marriage-bed, No children to my name. An outcast stripped of sympathy. (Sophocles, 232) These lines are very tragic; Antigone is being killed a nd she is naming all of the experiences she has not had, and yet she doesnt regret what she has done, and still keeps her faith. This definitely is a trait of a tragic hero; however, this dignity is also her flaw and is what causes her death. There are definitely some similarities between Nora and Antigone. However, these similarities mostly have to do with the fact that both women are in a society where women are oppressed. The differences in their personalities are very evident, and create a fine line between the two. While Nora is more of a submissive character, at times mocking the society, What do I care about this tiresome Society? (Ibsen, 15), Antigone is not the typical quiet housewife. Antigone has a stronger character, one of a true hero. Perhaps it is Antigones social status that somehow plays in to her being such a powerful character. Being of a royal family, it is understandable that Antigone wants proper respect for her brother no matter how much of an enemy he is to the state. Nora is also somewhat victorious; just like Antigone, she also loses certain aspects of her life, her children and house and husband. However, Nora learns that her main duties are Duties to myself. (Ibsen, 65)

A Hologram for the King by Dave Eggers essays

A Hologram for the King by Dave Eggers essays When I read A Hologram for the King, I noticed different aspects that I would like to develop. In my opinion, this book is about much more than just the decay of American business. Its about the life of a poor man who tries to deal with his difficult situation. So before beginning, lets have a short summary. Alan Clay, an ex-consultant and a victim of the Recession, is now a 54-years-old business man hired by Reliant in order to present a new technology, a holographic teleconference system, to the King Abdullah. By landing this contact, he would solve all his money problems as he is a debt?ridden man. Across the book and the wait for the king to come, Alan remembers his past and wonders about his purpose in the life. First of all, in my opinion, this story is about the nothingness both physical and psychological. On one hand, we can talk about a real physical desert because the whole story takes place in Saudi Arabia, which is not known for its luxury forests but for its small shrubs which dont need a lot of water. More particularly, the story takes place in King Abdullah Economic City which, according to the book, comprises only three buildings. For a city-to-be, its a kind of desert. The landscape was flat and blank. Anything built here, an unrelenting desert, was an act of sheer will imposed on territory unsuited for habitation. (A Hologram for the King, p34) They drove a mile before they arrived at a modest gate, a pair of stone arches over the road, a great dome atop it all. It was as if someone had built a road through unrepentant desert, and then erected a gate somewhere in the middle, to imply the end of one thing and the beginning of another. It was hopeful but unconvincing. (A Hologra m for the King, p40) On the other hand, when I talk about psychological nothingness, I allude to Alans life and relations. Hes divorced from his wife, Ruby,...

Research proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 1

Research Proposal Example By implication, Saudi Arabia can be said to be faced with an alarming healthcare workers to patient ratio. There are several factors that have been attributed to the current trend in literature. One such factor that the researcher found to be particularly striking was high employee turnover in the healthcare sector (Bunton & Macdonald, 2002). This means that the rate at which healthcare facilities in the country lose employees, particularly to other professions is high. Even in situations where change of work is within the same profession, Tones & Tilford (2001) posits that this could have its associated problems of inconsistency with professional practice. Sadly, the Madinah Cardiac Centre is no exception in the problem of high employee turnover. Having identified the problem of high employee turnover at the Madinah Cardiac Centre, the researcher aims to use the proposed study to find the best management approaches and interventions that can be used in solving the problem. The aim of the study will be pursued through some specific objectives which have been listed below. The achievement of the individual specific objectives will lead to the overall achievement of the research aim. The objectives set help to build both theoretical and practical significance for the study. By achieving the first two objectives, the researcher will use the research as a conceptual and theoretical basis on the concepts and phenomena of cultural metaphor and social system approach. As noted by Bunton & Macdonald (2002), the modern healthcare organization is one that is multicultural from the perspective of both service providers and service users. In the light of this, it is very important that theories and conceptual frameworks on culture such as cultural metaphor and social system approach will be well understood by healthcare managers in the context of their individual organizations. The third and four objectives also offer

Unionization of a Parker-Hannifin Corp Research Paper

Unionization of a Parker-Hannifin Corp - Research Paper Example This creates ways that are more sustainable getting materials and people, to places that they want to go. The employees are free to join labor unions. However, the employees and management must agree on collective bargaining. In case of a strike, the workers have to reach to a tentative agreement with the management, like the case in Toronto, where an agreement was reached hours after extending deadline of the strike, on June 23, 2010 (Bennett, 2009). Bennett claims that the company’s spokesman, John Arnone had failed to give an accord details with two workers of the Canadian Auto, who represented 2,700 office and production workers. Other strikes that were solved by unionization and management negotiations were in 2000, where job security and pension negotiations collapsed. Parker-Hannifin is concerned with the manufacture of design, and marketing of systems and components for users and builders of durable goods. On June 30, 1987, Bennett assess that the company had 28,708 em ployees, where only 6.5% (18570 were union members. In this company, there is no collective bargaining between the management and the employees, on issues concerning them. The company’s labor rules and practices are practiced as per the management’s will, without any agreement with the employees. This has really down played the employees welfare, while the company reaps substantial benefits. What are the differences in the bargaining powers of employees between the two companies? And, what are their bargaining items?

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women?

What is the Impact of HIV/AIDS on Women? ABSTRACT This dissertation will outline the major issues surrounding HIV/AIDS infection as it relates to women, with specific reference to women in Zimbabwe and the United Kingdom (UK). It will explore the reasons why women are increasingly at greater risk of infection than males. Underpinned by a feminist analysis of womens oppression, it will include a discussion of how biological, social, sexual, economic and cultural inequalities contribute to womens vulnerability. It will also look at the impact of HIV/AIDS on women and how these factors can influence them to seek services. The differences in what is deemed â€Å"social work† in terms of both definition and practice as well as the differences in the health systems and the healthcare workers involved in delivering services in both countries will also be explored. INTRODUCTION AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, a disease that makes it difficult for the body to fight off infectious diseases. The human immunodeficiency virus known as HIV causes AIDS by infecting and damaging part of the bodys defences its lymphocytes against infection. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell in the bodys immune system and are supposed to fight off invading germs. People may be infected (HIV positive) for many years before full AIDS develops, and they may be unaware of their status. HIV can only be passed on if infected blood, semen, vaginal fluids or breast milk gets inside another persons body. HIV and AIDS can be treated, but there are no vaccines or cures for them (WHO, 2003). HIV/AIDS PREVALENCE IN WOMEN IN ZIMBABWE AND THE UK Increasingly, â€Å"the face of HIV/AIDS is a womans face† (UNAIDS, 2004). AIDS is now the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa and the fourth-highest cause of death globally (UNAIDS, 2002). AIDS is a profound human tragedy and has been referred to as the â€Å"worlds most deadly undeclared war† (Richardson, 1987). Women and girls are especially vulnerable to HIV infection due to a host of biological, social, cultural and economic factors, including womens entrenched social and economic inequality within sexual relationships and marriage. HIV/AIDS continue their devastating spread, affecting the lives of 16,000 people each day, with women, babies and young people being increasingly affected. The number of people living with HIV/AIDS has now reached almost 40 million globally (UNAIDS and WHO, 2006), and of these an estimated two-thirds live in Sub-Saharan Africa, Zimbabwe included. Zimbabwe is experiencing one of the harshest AIDS epidemics in the world. The HIV prevalence rate in Zimbabwe is among the highest in the world, although recent evidence suggests that prevalence may be starting to decline. In Zimbabwe 1.8 million adults and children are living with HIV/AIDS, with 24.6% of adults infected: women represent 58% of those infected among the 20- to 49-year-old age range. (Consortium on AIDS and International Development, 2006) In a country with such a tense political and social climate, it has been difficult to respond to the crisis. President Robert Mugabe and his government have been widely criticised by the international community, and Zimbabwe has become increasingly isolated, both politically and economically. The country has had to confront a number of severe crises in the past few years, including an unprecedented rise in inflation (in January 2008 it reached 100,000%), a severe cholera epidemic, high rates of unemployment, political violence, and a near-total collapse of the health system (AIDS and HIV Information, 2009). In Britain, HIV prevalence is relatively low and currently stands at 0.2% of the population. Statistics show that at the end of 2008 there were an estimated 88,300 people living with HIV, of whom over a quarter (22,400, or 27%) were unaware of their infection. This compares to the 77,000 people estimated to be living with HIV in 2007, of whom 28% were estimated to be unaware of their HIV infection. Of all diagnoses to the end of 2008, 45% resulted from sex between men and 42% from heterosexual sex, with black Africans representing 35% of newly diagnosed infections (HPA, 2009). According to the Health Protection Agency (2009), there has also been a dramatic increase in the number of women diagnosed with HIV. In the years up to and including 1992, females accounted for 12% of HIV diagnoses, but in 2008 that was 37%. Therefore, as HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic, the eradication of this health issue represents one of humanitys greatest challenges one that requires co-operation and comprehensive collaboration between scientific disciplines, governments, social institutions, the media, social work and healthcare professionals, and the general public (IFSW, 2009). Social workers, by virtue of their training, their commitment to human rights, and the fact that they are uniquely placed within a wide variety of health and welfare settings, can play a very effective role in the global effort to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic (IFSW, 2009). 1. CHAPTER 1 1.1 OVERVIEW OF GENDER AND VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS While women are battling for equal rights throughout the international community, the existing power imbalance between men and women renders women particularly vulnerable to contracting HIV. Womens subordinate position places them at a considerable disadvantage with respect to their fundamental human right to control their own sexuality, and to access prevention, care, treatment, and support services and information. This subordination of women is mainly caused by the socially-constructed relations between men and women or, in other words, the patriarchal structure which is oppressive to women. (Walby, 1990, cited in Richardson, 2000) defines patriarchy as the â€Å"system of social structures and practices that men use to dominate, oppress and exploit women†, thus giving them greater opportunities to access services compared to females. Although the World Health Organization (WHO) and many governments are implementing educational programmes to teach women about protecting th eir health, traditional and cultural practices continue to perpetuate discrimination against women, in turn forcing women into high-risk situations. Unless proactive human-rights policies are enacted to empower, educate, and protect women with regard to their sexual autonomy, HIV/AIDS will continue to spread at an alarming rate and will have a devastating impact on all aspects of society. Even though the root of womens vulnerability lies in the imbalance in power between men and women, biological and sexual practices have an important role to play and mean that HIV transmission is unfortunately more efficient in women than in men. 1.2 WOMENS BIOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY TO HIV/AIDS Women are more biologically vulnerable to HIV than men; research has shown that women are at greater risk than men of contracting HIV both from an individual act of intercourse and from each sexual partnership. This â€Å"biological sexism† applies not only to HIV but to most other sexually transmitted diseases (Hatcher, et al, 1989). A woman has a 50 per cent chance of acquiring gonorrhoea from an infected male partner while a man has a 25 per cent chance if he has sex with an infected woman (Doyal et al., 1994). This is because the vaginal tissue absorbs fluids more easily, including the sperm, which has a higher concentration of the HIV virus than female vaginal secretions and may remain in the vagina for hours following intercourse, thus increasing womens vulnerability to infection. Not only are women more vulnerable to STIs than men, but â€Å"untreated genital infections, especially genital ulcer disease, syphilis and genital herpes, all predispose to HIV infection† (Doyal, 1994). While STDs are not necessarily gender specific, it is likely that women with STDs will remain undiagnosed and untreated for longer, increasing their risk of infection (Finnegan, et al, 1993). This is largely because women tend to remain symptomless for longer than men (Doyal, 1994). Even though much is known about the transmission of HIV to women through unprotected sex with men, less is known about the manifestations, progression, treatment and care of HIV/AIDS in women. Due to the lack of research we can at best speculate on the reasons for this. One reason may be the failure of medical professionals to pick up on possible symptoms which are often present in women: â€Å"existing diagnostic guidelines pay little attention to symptoms such as thrush, herpes, menstrual problems and cervical cell abnormalities that seem to characterise the early stages of the disease process in many women. Indeed a significant number are diagnosed only during pregnancy or when their child is found to be HIV positive†. (Doyal, 1994, p13) Therefore, if researchers persist in ignoring the biological differences, then the realities of the risks of infection and the disease progression in women will remain unacknowledged. As a consequence of this, women will continue to be diagnosed later than men, which ultimately leads to an earlier death. (Gorst, 2001,) Further research into biological differences and the effects of HIV on womens bodies is urgently needed. 1.3 TRADITIONAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS Traditional and customary practices play a part in the vulnerability of women to HIV infection. Practices such as early marriage and the payment of lobola in marriages make women and girls more vulnerable to HIV infection. Marriages among black women in Zimbabwe include bride wealth â€Å"lobola† if the couple is to be socially approved. Bride wealth is increasingly becoming big business in Zimbabwe, with some parents charging as much as US$2,500 plus five or more cattle for an educated girl. (IRIN NEWS, 2009) The insistence on bride wealth as the basis of validating a marriage makes female sexuality a commodity and reduces women to sexual objects, with limited rights and privileges compared to their husbands, who pay in order to marry them, thus leaving them without a say in their relationship. Patriarchal attitudes are also found in Christianity and these have strengthened the traditional customs that men use to control womens sexuality. (Human Rights Monitor, 2001) For example, Eves alleged creation from Adams rib has made women occupy a subordinate position in the Church as well as in the family. Women are therefore viewed merely as second-class citizens who were created as an afterthought. This is to say that if God had seen it fit for Adam to stay alone, then Eve would never have been created and hence women would not exist in this world. Such patriarchal attitudes have seen women being forced to be submissive to males. To make matters worse, once Eve was created she wreaked havoc by giving in to the Devils temptation and pulling Adam into sin. This portrayal of women as the weaker sex has made men treat women as people who have to be kept under constant supervision. St Pauls letter to the Colossians is one example of the letters which Zimbabwean men quote as a justifi cation of their control over women. The woman is expected â€Å"to submit to her husband† (Colossians 3:18) whilst the husband has to love his wife (Colossians 3:19). Therefore, because of these beliefs, women will remain passive and powerless in relation to sexual health, making them more vulnerable to HIV/AIDS. 1.4 CONFLICT AND CIVIL UNREST Migration or displacement as a result of civil strife, natural disasters, drought, famine and political oppression has a greater impact on womens vulnerability to HIV infection compared to men. About 75 per cent of all refugees and displaced people are women and children. The political and economic crisis in many African and Asian countries has caused many women to come to the UK in search of safer lives and employment (Freedman, 2003). The World Health Organization (WHO, 2003) states that female immigrant workers are more vulnerable to sexual barter as they try to negotiate for necessary documentation, employment and housing, which further increases their risk of HIV/AIDS infection. In addition, because of the lack of legal documentation these women will experience limited options, receive low status, receive low pay and are often isolated in their work, including marriage, domestic, factory and sex work. These situations place women in vulnerable and powerless positions, with little ability to refuse or negotiate safe sex, thereby increasing their risk to HIV/AIDS. Despite the risks associated with the migration process it is important to recognise the right to ‘freedom of movement and travel irrespective of HIV status (ICW 12 Statement and the Barcelona Bill of Rights, 2002). This was a focal point during the Barcelona HIV/AIDS conference in 2002, because the Spanish authorities denied visas to numerous people from the South many of whom were open about their HIV status. Some countries do have discriminatory policies regarding travel of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLHA) and others are instituting stricter controls. For example, Canada has recently introduced the need for an HIV test for people emigrating to Canada and Australia. Whilst they say it will not affect the final decision it is not clear why they need the information (Tallis, 2002). 1.5 POVERTY AND INEQUALITY Women and men experience poverty differently because of gender inequality: The causes and outcomes of poverty are heavily engendered and yet traditional conceptualisations consistently fail to delineate povertys gender dimensions resulting in policies and programmes which fail to improve the lives of poor women and their families (Beneria and Bisnath, 1998). Despite worldwide attention to existing inequalities and the way these violate a socially-just society, there is no society in the world in which women are treated as equals with men (Doyal, 2001). Major inequalities between men and women still exist in many places from opportunities in education and employment to choices in relationships. Gender and social inequalities make women more vulnerable to HIV infection, especially in societies which afford women a lower status than men. Worldwide, women and girls are disproportionately impacted by poverty, representing 70 per cent of the 1.2 billion people who live in poverty worldwide (Amnesty International, 2005), a phenomenon commonly referred to as the â€Å"feminisation of poverty†. Worldwide, women receive an average of 30-40 per cent less pay than men for the same work (Card et al, 2007). This economic inequality may influence womens ability to control the timing and safety of sexual intercourse. Specifically, economic dependence on men, especially those who are not educated and do not have good jobs, forces women to remain silent about HIV risk issues and to stay with partners who refuse to engage in safe-sex practices. Poverty also leads to greater HIV risk among women by leading them to barter sex for economic gain or survival (Weiss et al, 1996). Commercial sex work is the most well-known way for women to exchange sex for money, food, shelter or other necessities. Most of this sex will be unsafe as women will be at risk of losing economic support from men by insisting on safer sex. Where substance abuse is a factor, the means for obtaining clean needles may be traded for other essentials. Trading or sharing needles is a way to reduce drug-addiction costs. Risk behaviours and disease potential are predictable under such compromised circumstances (Albertyn, 2000, cited in Card, 2007). Educational inequality also contributes to a womans HIV risk directly, by making information on HIV/AIDS less accessible to her, and indirectly, by increasing her economic dependence on a male partner. In particular, studies show that more-educated women are more likely to know how to prevent HIV transmission, delay sexual activity, use healthcare services, and take other steps to prevent the spread of HIV (UNIFEM, 2004). Because many cultures value ignorance about sex as a feature of femininity, many young women are prevented by husbands, fathers, or other family members from obtaining information about HIV/AIDS. Others decline to seek such information out of fear for their reputations. Lack of education about the causes, prevention, and treatment of HIV/AIDS will increase these womens vulnerability to infection. Legal systems and cultural norms in many countries reinforce gender inequality by giving men control over productive resources such as land, through marriage laws that subordinate wives to their husbands and inheritance customs that make males the principal beneficiaries of family property (Baylies, 2000). For example, Zimbabwe has a dual legal system, recognising both common and customary law in marriage. This creates inequalities for many women upon divorce or their husbands death. Women in customary marriages, especially those who are not educated and who live in rural areas, make up approximately 80% of marriages in Zimbabwe, and are not entitled to the same rights as those married under common law; this means that they are often barred from inheriting property and land, or getting custody of their children, thus making them more vulnerable to male dominance and increasing their risk of getting infected with STIs (Womankind, 2002). 1.6 CONCLUSION Power inequalities at social, economic, biological, political and cultural levels mean that women continue to be increasingly more at risk from HIV infection. It is therefore critical that social workers and other healthcare professionals make sure that HIV/AIDS prevention and care programmes address the most immediate perceived barriers to accessing HIV/AIDS prevention and care services. Measures could include vocational training, employment, micro-finance programmes, legal support, safe housing and childcare services. Such measures would empower these women to have options and to take voluntary and informed decisions regarding the adoption of safer practices to prevent the transmission of HIV/AIDS (UNODC, 2006). There is also the need for a female-controlled form of protection which women can use to protect themselves, for example microbicides, which women can use without the consent or even the knowledge of their partner, thus enabling them to protect themselves if they are forced to engage in unprotected sex. 2. CHAPTER 2 2.1 HIGH-RISK GROUPS OF WOMEN Although there is a vast literature on HIV/AIDS, relatively little has been written about how HIV/AIDS affects women, and what constitutes a high-risk group. In part, this reflects the way AIDS was initially perceived in the West as a â€Å"mens disease†, so much so that until a few years ago a common response to the topic of women and AIDS was â€Å"Do women get AIDS?†, the assumption being that women were at little or no risk (Doyal, et al, 1994). This has never been true of Africa, where the appallingly pervasive epidemic has always been a heterosexual disease and where 55 per cent of those who have been infected were women. In recent years it has become increasingly clear that women can both become infected with HIV and transmit the virus. A study conducted by AWARE (Association for Womens AIDS Research and Education) in America found that women who inject and share needles, have sexual contact with or are artificially inseminated by a man, lesbians, sex workers and those from an ethnic minority, especially black women, were at increased risk of HIV infection (Richardson, 1987). The study also found that most people in these groups are underrepresented in prevention or treatment interventions, and often suffer social stigma, isolation, poverty and marginalisation, which place them at higher risk. Therefore, in this chapter I am going to discuss how some of these groups are vulnerable to infection, and what can be done to prevent and treat infection in these vulnerable groups without inadvertently increasing their stigmatisation. 2.2 PROSTITUTES There is a substantial body of research on the correlation between HIV/AIDS infection and female prostitution. Studies worldwide have revealed cause-and-effect relationships between AIDS and prostitution in a number of areas, including the use of alcohol and/or psychoactive drugs, and have revealed variance in the rate and circumstance of infection from one country to another (OLeary et al, 1996). For example, researchers have found the high rate of AIDS in Africa to be largely a reflection of exposure through sexual activity only, while in the US and Europe, transmission of the AIDS virus is more likely to come from prostitutes or customers who are also IV drug users. Many writers have pointed out that real social concern about HIV infection did not materialise until its potential â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† was recognised. What is less often pointed out is that concern for the â€Å"spread to heterosexuals† has mostly been manifest in concern for the spread to heterosexual men, not heterosexual women (Flowers, 1998). The expressed fear is that HIV will spread from women to men, allegedly through prostitution. In the press and the international scientific literature on AIDS, often the light cast upon Women in Prostitution (WIP) has been a harsh one. WIP have been identified as a â€Å"risk group†, a â€Å"reservoir of infection†, and a â€Å"bridge† for the HIV epidemic. Such technical, epidemiological language has depicted WIP as vectors of HIV infection (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Rather than presenting WIP as links in broader networks of heterosexual HIV transmission, women categorised as prostitutes have bee n described as â€Å"infecting† their unborn infants, their clients and indirectly their clients other female sexual partners, as though HIV originated among WIP (Scharf and Toole, 1992). Like posters from WWI and WWII which aimed to warn armed servicemen in Europe of the danger of contracting gonorrhoea and syphilis (Brandt, 1985, cited in Flowers et al, 1998), some AIDS-prevention posters have caricatured WIP as evil sirens ready to entice men to their deaths (New African, 1987, cited in Larson, 1988). Interestingly, there is evidence that some HIV-positive men may be inclined to claim that their infection came from a female prostitute, in order to cover up its real origins: sex with a man, or IV drug use. 2.3 PROSTITUTION IN ZIMBABWE There are many reasons why women engage in prostitution in Zimbabwe. Studies show that poverty and deviance are the main causes. Other studies have shown that many women engage themselves in prostitution by their own choice and see it as a career path whilst others might be forced into it (Chudakov, 1995). In Zimbabwe prostitution is illegal, and many women and young girls, especially orphans who engage in prostitution, are driven to it by poverty and economic dislocation, which is being caused by the current economic and political crisis the country is experiencing. According to the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), the hunger and disease-ridden conditions in much of Zimbabwe have forced many children into prostitution in order to feed themselves (UNICEF, 2008). Save the Children, a non-governmental organisation working to create positive changes for disadvantaged children in the country, estimate that girls as young as 12 are now selling their bodies for even the most meagr e of meals, such as biscuits and chips. They also state that the issue is further complicated by the growing presence of child traffickers in the region, looking for young girls to abduct and take to South Africa for the use of potential clients at the 2010 World Cup (Mediaglobal, 2009). Combating child prostitution and trafficking is complicated, but prioritising the alleviation of poverty with particular emphasis on fighting poverty from a childs perspective; prioritising education for all, with emphasis on improving access for girls; and provision of information to victims and survivors of child prostitution and/or trafficking, including information about available counselling and legislative services would be helpful (WHO, 2003). 2.4 PROSTITUTION IN THE UK Prostitution in the UK is different from that in Zimbabwe. The laws around prostitution in England and Wales are far from straight-forward. The act of prostitution is not in itself illegal but a string of laws criminalises activities around it. Under the Sexual Offences Act 2003, it is an offence to cause or incite prostitution or control it for personal gain. The 1956 Sexual Offences Act bans running a brothel and its against the law to loiter or solicit sex on the street. Kerb-crawling is also banned, providing it can be shown that the individual was causing a persistent annoyance (BBC NEWS, 2008). Though actual s are scarce, it has been estimated that at least 2 million women are selling sexual favours in Britain. The bulk of these are brothel prostitutes working in parlours, saunas or private health clubs. According to The First Post published on 18/08/08, prostitution was viewed as â€Å"the new profession†. The article stated that prostitution in Britain is booming, and that thousands of young women have chosen prostitution for independence and financial security. The key factor which has led to a huge rise in this kind of prostitution is the influx of girls from Poland and other Eastern European countries which acceded to the EU in 2000. A strong relationship also exists between UK prostitutes and substance abuse, which drives many into the sex business. Intravenous-drug-using prostitutes are particularly prominent in Scottish cities such as Glasgow (OLeary et al, 1996). According to researchers, 70 per cent of the citys streetwalkers are IV drug addicts, injecting heroin, temazepam and tengesic. In Edinburgh, which has the highest rate of HIV-seropositive IV drug addicts of all cities in Britain, a significant number of those addicts testing HIV positive have been identified as prostitutes. Even though sex workers can transmit HIV/AIDS, blaming them encourages stigma and discrimination against all women. It allows the men who infect sex workers and their own wives to deny that they are infecting others. Wives too can infect their husbands, who can in turn infect sex workers. It is therefore important to note that sex workers and their clients are not serving as a â€Å"bridge† for HIV transmission into the rest of the population. 2.4 LESBIANS Can women transmit the disease to other women through sexual activity? The answer to this question is crucial for a community that knows that HIV is within it even though the question might be difficult to answer as there is â€Å"very little† information on this subject (Richardson, 1987). Lesbians were seen as least likely to be infected, as there was an understanding of HIV as a disease which existed in specific groups of people, for example gay males and intravenous-drug users. Because of these biased attitudes toward people, rather than risk behaviours, no data was systematically gathered. This understanding prevented the healthcare system from defining sexual risk behaviours: it stressed people, not sexual behaviours. It has therefore been noted that most lesbians have been in â€Å"risk situations† or engaged in what would be considered as â€Å"risky behaviour† at some stage. Some lesbians inject drugs and may share needles. Also, a significant number of lesbians have had sex with men before coming out, and many will have had unprotected vaginal or anal intercourse Some may still have sex with men for reproductive purposes (Gorna, 1996). Some may be prostitutes who, for economic reasons or through pressure from a pimp, may have had unprotected sex with clients (Richardson, 1989). According to records from a London sexual health clinic for lesbians, 35 per cent of the lesbians who attended had had sex with a man in the previous six months (Gorna, 1996). As Gorna puts it, this emphasises the fact that â€Å"activity is not always consistent with identity†. In other words, â€Å"we are put at risk by what we do, not by how we define ourselves or who we are† (Bury, 1994, p32). Although the risk of HIV infection from sex between women is very small, it is important for lesbians to look at what they do, how they do it and with whom they do it, just like everyone else, as, â€Å"Low risk isnt no risk† (Richardson, D, 2004). However, they may find it difficult to access services and, if they become ill, they may experience special problems, given that the healthcare system is designed for and administered by a predominantly heterosexual population. There may be a lack of recognition of their relationships, which could lead to isolation and depression. For example in Zimbabwe homosexuality is illegal and punishable by imprisonment of up to 10 years. The President of Zimbabwe, Robert Mugabe, views lesbians and gays as â€Å"sexual perverts† who are â€Å"lower than dogs and pigs† (BBC NEWS, 1998). In 1995 he ordered the Zimbabwe International Book Fair to ban an exhibit by the civil-rights group Gays and Lesbians in Zimbabwe (GALZ). He follo wed this ban with warnings that homosexuals should leave the country â€Å"voluntarily† or face â€Å"dire consequences†. Soon afterwards Mugabe urged the public to track down and arrest lesbians and gays. Since these incitements, homosexuals have been fire-bombed, arrested, interrogated and threatened with death (Tatchell, 2001). This makes it difficult for lesbians in Zimbabwe to access information and other services, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection. 2.5 ELDERLY WOMEN The number of older people (older than 50 years) with HIV/AIDS is growing fast. Older adults are infected through the same high-risk behaviours as young adults, though they may be unaware that they are at risk of HIV/AIDS. However, when assessing the impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic upon the worlds population, older people are often overlooked. HIV-prevention measures rarely target the older generation, despite the fact that many older people are sexually active and therefore still at risk of being exposed to HIV. The older population is steadily growing larger with the maturing of the â€Å"baby-boomer† generation as well as the availability of antiretroviral drugs which extend peoples life expectancy. Social norms about divorce, sex, and dating are changing, and drugs such as Viagra are facilitating a more active sex life for older adults (NAHOF, 2007, cited in Lundy et al, 2009). Heterosexual women aged 50 and older are most in need of the HIV-prevention message. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2006) estimates that around 2.8 million adults aged 50 years and over are living with HIV, representing 7 per cent of all cases. In the UK, the Health Protection Agency reported that almost 4,000 HIV-infected people who were accessing care in 2006 were aged 55 years or over. Data on this subject from low-income countries like Zimbabwe is fairly patchy. This is because HIV/AIDS surveillance is commonly conducted in antenatal clinics, as many people have little other direct contact with medical services. Data from antenatal clinics does not provide information about people who are above child-bearing age, thus making it difficult for healthcare and service providers to make policies that will impact on the elderly who are infected. Firstly, it has been noted that elderly women can be exposed to HIV via non-consensual sexual contact or rape. Research has shown that some criminals appear to target older women for sexual crimes because they appear to be, and often are, vulnerable to attack (Muram et al, 1992). Elderly women in institutional settings such as nursing homes may also be at greater risk. Some estimates suggest that up to 15 per cent of elderly nursing-home residents have been victims of either sexual or physical abuse, thus increasing their vulnerability to HIV infection (Collins, 2002). Exposure to blood tainted with HIV may also occur when an older woman provides care to adult children who may be suffering from AIDS (Levine-Perkell, 1996). Allers (1990) revealed that more than one-third of all adults who contract A

Business Law Assignment Essay

This essay will explain the following four questions. First, would registration with the SEC be required for Dakota Gasworks securities? Second, Did Emerson violate Section 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and SEC Rule 10b-5? Third what theory or theories might a court use to hold Wallace liable for insider trading? Finally, under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, who would be required to certify the accuracy of financial statements filed with the SEC? Would registration with the SEC be required for Dakota Gasworks securities? Why or why not? Reliant Energy has registered securities and faces a takeover attempt, or third party tender offer, then the SEC’s tender offer rules will apply to the transaction. The filings required by these rules provide information to the public about the person making the tender offer. The company, Dakota Gasworks, is experiencing the takeover so they must file with the SEC its responses to the tender offer. These rules set time limits for the tender offer and provide some protection to shareholders. Did Emerson violate Section 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 and SEC Rule 10b-5? Why or why not? Moreover, Emerson did violate rule 10b-5 of the Securities exchange act, in where it protects against insider trading; which is the purchase or sale by person with access to information not available to those whom with those they deal or general traders. The person passing the information of the takeover, Emerson, violated this rule by passing information that wasn’t regularly available to general traders. What theory or theories might a court use to hold Wallace liable for insider trading? Furthermore, the theory behind the prohibiting insider trading is that is undermines investor confidence in the fairness and integrity of the securities markets. The SEC claims that finding and prosecuting insider trading violations is one of its enforcement priorities, and all investors need to be aware of the danger in trading from spoken knowledge that is not  publicly known to people who base their trading on this information. Under the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, who would be required to certify the accuracy of financial statements filed with the SEC? Finally, the intent of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act is to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosures made pursuant to the securities laws, and for other purposes. The Act requires all financial reports to include an internal control report. This is designed to show that not only are the company’s financial data accurate, but the company has confidence in them because adequate controls are in place to safeguard financial data. Year-end financial reports must contain an assessment of the effectiveness of the internal controls. The issuer’s auditing firm is required to attest to that assessment. The auditing firm does this after reviewing controls, policies, and procedures during a Section 4040 audit, conducted along with a traditional financial audit. Under Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, the CEO and CFO of public companies are required to certify the accuracy of financial statements filed with the SEC. References: 1. Miller, Roger & Jentz, Gaylord (2010) Fundamentals of Business Law: Summarized Cases 8th Edition, Cengage Learning. 2. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002. (n.d.). The Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002. Retrieved December 19, 2012 from http://www.soxlaw.com/